Isotopes of carbon

Introduction to Carbon:
The element with atomic number 6 in the periodic table refers to Carbon which belongs to group 14.  This element is widely distributed in most of the planets.  Carbon is a nonmetallic and tetravalent element and it forms covalent bonds.  The common oxidation states of carbon are +4 in organic compounds and +2 in carbon monoxide and transition metal complexes.  Diamond is the hardest material of carbon where as ceraphite is the softest material.   Mainly there are three allotropes of carbon fullerenes, diamond and graphite and some other forms are ionsdaleite, buckminsterfullerene and also carbon nanotube.
Allotropic forms of element with atomic number 6:
Fullerene                                 
     

Isotopes of carbon:

Among seven isotopes carbon has two stable isotopes. Those two isotopes of carbon are carbon-14 which is a naturally occurring radioisotope, it is used in carbon dating. Carbon- 13 which forms only 1.07%. Carbon-8 is the shortest lived isotope. Carbon-19 is the isotope which exhibits nuclear halo.
Compounds of carbon:
In atmosphere, carbon is found in combination with other elements like oxygen, hydrogen etc.  For ex: carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, carbon disulfide, carbon tetra fluoride, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, methane, ethylene, acetylene , benzene , acetic acid its derivatives.
Organic compound containing carbon (carbon tetra fluoride):

Properties of carbon:

• Atomic mass: 12
• Appearance: solid
• Electronic configuration: 1s² 2s² 2p² or [He] 2s² 2p²
• Density: 1.8-3.5g/cm³
• Melting point: 3915K
• Oxidation states: +4, +2
• Vander walls radius: 170pm

Applications of carbon:
1. Without carbon life could not exist because it plays an important role.
2. Carbon-14 which is naturally occurring isotope is used in carbon dating.
3. Allotrope of carbon (graphite) is used in pencil leads.
4. Hydrocarbons in combination with carbon are used in the production of gasoline and kerosene.
5. In nuclear reactors, it is used as neutron moderator.
6. It is (charcoal) used in artwork as a drawing material.
7. Cellulose is a natural carbon containing polymer used in maintaining the structure of plants.
8. Synthetic carbon is used in the production of plastics
9. It is used in diamond industries.

10. Now a day’s used in the production of carbon nanotube.

Atomic structure of Iron

Introduction 
There is a need at all levels of the study of science to present the correct picture of any substance. Here is an attempt to present the correct picture of the Iron atom, which is best described in terms of its orbital structure and orientation.
Occurrence: Iron is one of the more common elements on Earth. It makes up about 5% of the Earth's crust. Most of this iron is found in various Iron oxides, such as the minerals; Hematite, Magnetite, and Taconite. The earth’s core consists largely of a metallic iron-nickel alloy. Although rare, these are the major form of natural metallic iron on the earth's surface.

Atomic structure of Iron

The atomic number of Iron element is 26, which indicates the presence of 26 protons and 26 electrons in its atom.
Naturally occurring Iron consists of four isotopes:
a) 5.845% of radioactive ⁵⁴Fe (half-life: >3.1×10²² years) Number of neutrons, n = 28.
b) 91.754% of stable ⁵⁶Fe, n = 30.
c) 2.119% of stable ⁵⁷Fe, n = 31.
d) 0.282% of stable ⁵⁸Fe, n = 32.
E) ^{6 0}Fe is an extinct radionuclide. n = 34.
Nucleus:
The nucleus of Iron (Fe) atom is made of 26 protons and 30 neutrons (is most abundant).  The total number of electrons in Iron atom is 26, which is equal to that of protons, which maintains the neutrality of the atom.   But, Iron has got two stable oxidation states, +2 and +3.
Electron distribution:
The ground state electronic configuration of Iron atom is given by:
  (1s²)    (2s²2s⁶)    (3s²3p⁶3d⁶)    (4s²)

As it is seen in the electronic configuration, there are four shells available in the Iron atom.
The first energy level - K shell (n=1) - consists of 2 electrons in s-orbital, spherical in shape.
The second energy level - L shell (n=2) - consists of 8 electrons, out of which 2 in s-orbital and 6 in p-orbital (dumb bell in shape).
The third energy level - M shell (n=3) - consists of 14 electrons, out of which 2 in s-orbital and 6 in p-orbital (dumb bell in shape) and 6 in d-orbital (double dumb bell in shape).
The fourth energy level - N shell (n=1) - consists of 2 electrons in s-orbital.
Whenever Iron is oxidized, the electrons are removed from the outermost shell.  An octet electronic configuration is attained when +3 state is reached, which is half filled d-orbital state. So, Fe⁺³ is most stable state of Iron.
 (1s²)    (2s²2s⁶)    (3s²3p⁶3d⁵)    (4s⁰)
Iron is more stable, when it is oxidized.  So, it has a very high tendency to liberate electrons and get converted into Ferric ion, which is reasonable by its atomic structure. This is the reason why Iron gets rust.

Significance of atomic structure

The knowledge of the atomic structure is very useful in describing the chemical as well as physical properties associated with the element. Precisely, it can be said that the secrete of life is hidden in the atomic structure.

Atomic number 27

Introduction :
The word ‘atomic number 27’ refers to Cobalt which is having the atomic number 27. The number of protons in a nucleus determines the identity of the atom is called as ‘atomic number’.  It is represented by the letter Z. For example a hydrogen atom contains one proton, so the atomic number of hydrogen is one (Z=1) similarly the atomic number of cobalt is 27 (Z=27).
Swedish chemist Georg Brandt (1694–1768) is credited with discovering cobalt (atomic number 27) circa 1735. The word cobalt (atomic number 27) is derived from the German kobalt, from kobold meaning "goblin", a term used for theory of cobalt (atomic number 27) by miners.
Occurrence:
Cobalt (atomic number 27) occurs in copper and nickel minerals and in combination with sulfur and arsenic in the sulfidic cobaltite minerals.

Method of Extraction:

1. Froth flotation process:
It is a process for selectively separating hydrophobic materials from hydrophilic. This is used in several processing industries.
Froth flotation process is based on the principle that the metallic sulphide particles of the ore are preferentially wetted by oil and gangue particles by water.

                                                                                                 Froth flotation process
In this process, the finely divided ore is added to a large amount of water contained in the tank. Certain oils like pine oil, eucalyptus oil etc, are added.  A current of compressed air is circulated through the water in the flotation tank. The metallic ore particles are preferentially wetted by the oil froth and rise to the surface along with the froth. The gangue material is wetted. Hence it settles at the bottom.
2. Roasting process:
It is a process in which the ores are heated to a high temperature below their melting point in the presence of excess of air. During this process, the moisture escape and the impurities like sulphur, arsenic, etc are oxidized to their volatile oxides. The messes become porous. It is generally carried out in a reverberatory furnace.
                        S +O₂ → SO₂↑
                         As  +  O₂  →  As₂O₃↑
       Sometimes, the sulphide ore are oxidized to sulphates
                   2ZnS + 3O₂ → 2ZnO + 2SO₂

     Roasting process

Applications of Cobalt (atomic number 27)::

• It is used in batteries.
• It is used as catalysts.     
• It is used as a pigment and coloring.
• It is used in a biological role.
• It is used for electroplating.
• It is used for electroplating due to its appearance, hardness, and resistance to oxidation.

Atomic and ionic radii

Introduction :

Atomic radii are also known as covalent radius.  Atomic radii describes the size of the atom of an element in its elementary state or in covalently linked molecule. It is measured in terms of picometers or Angstroms. It is the distance from the nucleus to the boundary of the surrounding cluster of electrons.

The bond length of a covalent linkage is the distance between the nuclei of the two bonded atoms. The bond length can be measured by X-diffraction method.

The internuclear distance between two unlike atoms in a covalent bond is the sum of the atomic radii of the two. For example, the covalent radii of hydrogen and chlorine are 0.037 nm and 0.099 nm respectively. Hence the internuclear distance in HCl molecule is 0.037 nm + 0.099 nm = 0.136 nm.

The atomic size will generally decrease from left to right in a period. This is because, when we proceed from one element another in a period, this results in a greater pull on electrons towards the nucleus. In a given period, the alkali metal atom of group 1A is the largest and the halogen atom in 7A is the smallest.

Ionic radii:

The ionic radii may be defined as the distance between the nucleus of an ion and the point up to which the nucleus has influence on its electron cloud.
The concept of ionic radii was developed independently by Victor Goldschmidt and Linus Pauling in 1920.
If ions in a crystal are regarded as spheres, the internuclear distance between two ions is equal to the sum of the radii of the ions. The internuclear distance is measured by X-ray analysis of ionic compounds. Knowing the radius of one ion, that of the other is calculated.
The interionic distance in potassium chloride crystal is 0.314 nm= r K⁺ + r Cl^- = 0.314 nm where r K⁺ and r Cl^- are the radii of potassium ion and chloride ion respectively. It is found that r K⁺ = 0.314 nm   Therefore r Cl^- = 0.314-0.133 = 0.181 nm.

Atomic scale

Introduction:- Many chemical phenomena occur around us and these are explained on the basis that matter is made up of molecules. Molecules,in turn, are made up of atoms. daltons atomic theory  that an atom is an indivisible particle.  but reaserch findings of the last hundred years on the study of gases in particular and then of solids,led to the discovery of the fundamental particles,viz., electron,proton and nutron. various atomic models  to indicte the arrangement of these fundamental particles in an atom were proposed. an atom consists of a nucleus at its center. protons and nutrons are present  in the nucleous while electrons revolve aroud the nucleous. the charges and masses of  the fundemental particles are listed below.  
         It is especially focus on the properties. There are two kinds of atomic units.

1. Hartree atomic units.
2.  Rydberg  atomic units.   The numerical values of the follwing four fundemental physical constants are all units by definition                                                             electron mass                                                                                                                                                                                                                       elementary charge                                                                                                                                                                                                              reduced plank's constant                                                                                                                                                                                                    columbs constant.

Atomic number:-

 Every atom of a given element consists of a definite number of electrons. this number is called the atomic number of the element. it is denoted by Z.Moseley proposed that a simple relation between the frequencies of the charecteristic X-rays given by element and its atomic number.When a meterial target,called anticathode,is placed in the path of cathode rays in a discharge tube,X-rays charecteristic of the metal are emitted from the metal target.

MASS NUMBER:-

 The total of the numer of protons and nutrons present in an atom  is reffrred to as the mass number(A) of the atom of that element.This is mathematically written as
                                              A=Z+N.
                                where Z is the atomic number and N is the number of nutrons.Hence mass number is always positive.Atoms ofan element which differ in their mass but have the same atomic number are  called isotopes of that element.The isotopes of an element thus have the same number of protons but differ in the number of nutrons present in them.

Fundamental atomic units 

Fundamental Atomic Units
Dimension	Name	Symbol	Value in SI units
mass	electron rest mass	me	9.1093826(16)×10−31 kg
charge	elementary charge	e	1.60217653(14)×10−19 C
angular momentum	Reduced Planck's constant	h-=h/2π	1.05457168(18)×10−34 J·s
electric constant	Coulomb force constant	1 / (4πε0)	8.9875517873681×109 kg·m3·s-2·C-2

Atomic models:-

Rutherford model:-
                                  
Rutherfords experiment showed that most of the space in an atom is empty and all the mass of the atom and its positive charge are concentrated at the center of   the atom which is spherical in shape.The center point of the positive charge is called "atomic nucleus". The electrons revolve round the nucleus in circular orbits just as planets revolve round the sun.
This model failes to explain two important facts:

• As per the law of electrodynamics ,a charged particle like electron in circular motion around the opposite charge should continously lose energy by emission and spiral down into the nucleus due to nucleus attraction.If this happens ,the atom should collaps which is not happening.

If the electron in an atom continuosly radiates energy ,the spectrom of that element should be continous spectrom.But the eseatoms give rise to discontinuous line specta with we defined lines.        

Neon atomic symbol

Introduction to Neon:

Neon's discovery happened in 1898 by Ramsay & Travers. It is one of the rarest gases present in atmosphere to the extent of 1 part in 65,000 in the air. It is first obtained by air liquefaction and then through fractional distillation for separation of other gases. It is part of Group 18 elements in periodic table.

Properties and application of Neon:

Neon is a compound mixture of 3 isotopes. Apart from this, there are six other unstable isotopes. Though Neon is an inert element, it is found to have produced a compound in reaction with fluorine. Some of the ions of Neon are used in the study of mass spectroscopy and optical spectroscopy. It is used as a refrigeration compound in place of Helium as it costs less. At normal conditions of voltage & current, Neon displays intense behavior compared to all other inert gases.

Neon has an Atomic Mass of 20.1797 amu. Its melting point is supposed to be -248 °C.  Its boiling point is considered-246 °C.  Its crystal structure is in the form of a face-centered cube. Its density is supposed to be 0.9002 g/cm3

Neon is used in signboards as it appears very bright and reddish orange in color. Neon lights are used during foggy seasons as it can penetrate fog.  It is used in vacuum tubes, television tubes and in lasers. Liquid neon is used as a cryogenic refrigerant. But liquid neon is very expensive compared to liquid helium.

Neon belongs to p-block of noble gases in the periodic table. It is supposed to be the most inert element. It is believed by scientists that neon reacts with fluorine to produce different compounds. On reaction with water, neon produces unstable hydrate. Neon is produced in huge quantities during volcanic eruptions.  It combines with helium  gas to produce neon-helium lasers.

Conclusion:

Neon being the fifth most abundant element has variety of applications. It is also the second lightest gas and inert in nature which helps us in various applications.

Atomic structure protons

Introduction 
It is very essential to know the composition of matter to determine both of its physical and chemical properties. Atomic theory is a theory of the nature of matter. The composition of  matter is discrete units called atoms, as opposed to the notion that matter could be broken into any arbitrarily small quantity. It began in ancient Greece and India as Philosophical science and the field of chemistry showed that matter indeed behaves as if it is made up of particles.
John Dalton, in 1808 proposed a theory in which he stated that matter consists of very small indivisible particles called atoms. The word "atom" (Greek adjective atomos = uncut, 'indivisible’) was applied to the basic particles. The atomic structure itself was imagined to be the indivisible particle. However, around the 20th century, through various experiments with electromagnetism and radioactivity, physicists discovered that the atomic structure is actually an aggregate of various subatomic particles.  Since atoms were found to be divisible, physicists introduced the term "elementary particles" to describe indivisible particles. This field of science was believed to be the basis to discover the true fundamental nature of matter.

Fundamental particles – Constituents of atoms

J J Thomson studied the conduction of electricity by gases at low pressure. A kind of negatively charged particles were found to be emitted by the cathode. These were called ‘cathode rays’. The properties of these particles were identical for all gases.  This indicated that these particles existed in all substances.  These particles were called ‘electrons’ and are represented as e^—.
The ratio of charge (e) of the electron to its mass (m) was found to be 1.76x 10¹¹ coulomb per kilogram. Since an atomic structure is neutral, it should contain as much positive charge as negative charges carried by all electrons.
The lightest atom known is the hydrogen atom. It contains an electron and a positively charged particle. The positively charged particle obtained by removing the electron from a hydrogen atom was called a proton. It is represented as ₁p¹.
Mass of a proton is found to be 1.672 x 10^-27 kg.
Its charge is +1.602 x 10^-19C.
In 1932, James Chadwick discovered a new particle called a ‘neutron’, when he bombarded a thin beryllium foil with alpha (α) particles.  The electrons, protons and neutrons are the fundamental particles present in atomic structure.

Particle	Mass		Charge Unit = 1.602x10-19C
	kg	a.m.u
Electron	9.109x10-31	0.0005486	-1
Proton	1.672x10-27	1.007277	+1
Neutron	1.675x10-27	1.008665	0

Atomic Number vs Atomic Mass

After the discovery of the neutrons, it has been established that the nucleus contains two types of particles namely protons and neutrons. The protons are responsible for the positive charge of the nucleus.
The number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom is known as atomic number (Z) of the element.  However, as the atomic structure is neutral in nature, it should contain an equal number of positive charges and negative charges. Hence, atomic number is also equal to the number of electrons present in the atom of the element.
The sum of the number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of the atom is called mass number (A).  The protons and neutrons are called ‘nucleons’.
Thus, Z = atomic number = no. of protons.
         A = mass number  =   no. of protons + no. of neutrons
        Therefore, A-Z = no. of neutrons.